Disinfection By-Product Control

Disinfection kills or inactivates disease-causing organisms in a water supply. Disinfection by-products (DBPs) are formed when disinfectants used in water treatment plants react with bromide and/or natural organic matter, like decaying vegetation, present in the source water to create harmful compounds. Different disinfectants produce different types or amounts of disinfection byproducts.

We have 829 resources (and counting) on Disinfection and Disinfection By-Products in our Documents Database that provide valuable information on this topic. You can search for documents that explain how to use the Drinking Water State Revolving Fund (DWSRF) to address DBPs in drinking water, the basics of ultraviolet disinfection, disinfectant residual control within the distribution system, webinar recordings on ways to simulate disinfectant water chemistry and ways to assess distribution system influent water quality, and many other useful guides that will help you to deliver safe and clean water to utility customers. 

To access the wealth of knowledge on Disinfection and its potential by-products within our database just select "CATEGORY" in the dropdown then choose "Disinfection and Disinfection By-Products." Once you make that selection, a second dropdown will appear where you can choose "HOST," “TYPE,” or “STATE” to narrow the search even further. If you have a specific search term in mind, use the “Keyword Filter” search bar on the right side of the screen.

This is part of our A-Z for Operators series.

Learning Lessons from Supply Chain Disruption

One of the most prominent economic impacts to emerge from the COVID-19 pandemic was the breakdown of supply chains for many consumer, medical, and industrial products. Though the shortages of goods such as toilet paper, semiconductor chips, personal protective equipment and more made widespread headlines, the range of items affected spread much wider — including to the supply of critical water treatment chemicals. The American Water Works Association found in November 2021 that 45% of surveyed water utilities were experiencing shortages of water treatment chemicals, among other staffing and supply issues. 

Shortages of chlorine did make news in the summers of 2021 and 2022 due to the difficulty pool-owners had obtaining it to clean their pool water, but the threat it posed to water utilities — where chlorine is a critical component of the treatment and disinfection process — was much less widely known. In 2021, the pandemic spurred the shortage by causing a decrease in production capacity, an increase in demand (largely from a boom of newly-installed pools), and other logistical failures. However, non-COVID factors also played a role in the shortages.

Hurricane Laura, which struck Louisiana in August 2020, severely damaged the BioLab Inc. chemical plant, a major US producer of chlorine. In 2022, the labor dispute between rail workers and rail companies briefly led to an embargo on the rail transport of hazardous materials including chlorine and other water treatment chemicals. While further major disruptions did not occur in 2023, the EPA considers the chlorine supply chain to be “vulnerable to periods of reduced product allocation and/or price increases” and maintains a page tracking the status of chlorine availability and pricing. 

The most severe supply chain disruption in 2023 for water treatment chemicals came right at the start of the year — when a four-alarm fire devastated the Carus Chemical factory in LaSalle, Illinois, on January 11. Carus is the only producer of potassium permanganate in North America, which is used to oxidize contaminants in drinking water. While the company initially warned of  a 3-month outage in its production capacity, potassium permanganate production did not resume at Carus until August. Luckily, overseas imports were able to fill demand after some initial shortages, and the EPA found that supply had stabilized by May.

Other water treatment chemical supply chains that the EPA considered to be disrupted since 2020 include carbon dioxide, sodium hydroxide and hypochlorite, hydrochloric acid, ferric and ferrous chloride, oxygen, and fluorosilicic acid. However, none of these disruptions are considered to be ongoing.

While supply chains of water treatment chemicals have always been susceptible to periods of economic strain, such as the Great Recession of 2007-09, COVID-19 revealed many more risks in the system. According to the EPA’s “Understanding Water Treatment Chemical Supply Chains” report:  

“The supply disruptions that have occurred during the pandemic era revealed a range and intensity of supply chains stressors that had not previously been observed in such a short timeframe. While high-impact events such as a pandemic or repeated extreme weather events concentrated on industrial hubs may have been considered low-probability in previous assessments, supply chain risk planning may have to consider greater frequency and co-occurrence of such high-impact events.”

The most prevalent long-standing threats to the stability of supply chains include natural disasters, equipment failures, logistical problems such as transportation delays, and malicious acts like cyberattacks and sabotage — none of which will stop being a concern even as the pandemic is increasingly behind us. International markets can also be severely affected by trade barriers, armed conflicts, and natural disasters. 

Perhaps the most prominent chemical shortage preceding 2020 was a national shortage of chlorine in 1974. While a single cause of the shortage could not be identified, New York Times reporting at the time cited the new requirement to chlorinate wastewater, the closure of production facilities, and the energy crisis of the 1970s (which was peaking with the 1973-74 oil shock) as likely factors.

For more information on the supply chain history of various water treatment chemicals, the EPA’s supply chain profiles of 46 commonly used chemicals contains shortage histories for 2000-2022, as well as risk profiles for shortages of each chemical. Risk ratings for these chemicals can also be found in the “Understanding Water Treatment Chemical Supply Chains” report.

As for future concerns, chlorine availability could continue to be made vulnerable by natural disasters in the Gulf Coast region. 33% of American chlor-alkali facilities, in which most chlorine is produced, are located along the Gulf Coast, which is both historically prone to hurricanes and under greater threat as climate change intensifies storms. Disruptions in chlorine supply also lead to disruptions in ferric chloride supply, which requires hydrochloric acid. 

The EPA has many resources to assist in preparing for and responding to supply chain challenges. The critical steps to prepare are:

1. Using federal and state support programs for operational efficiency and cost reduction
2. Management of supplier relationships
3. Coordinating with other utilities, state and local agencies, and water sector associations
4. Instituting operational flexibilities 

To respond to disruptions, the EPA recommends:

1. Seeking federal support
2. Communicating with suppliers
3. Coordinating with partners

Follow the Supply Chain Resilience Guide for more information, instructions, and tips to prepare and respond.  

More information, tools, and links from the EPA: 

• Current Supply Chain Disruptions
• Platform for Coordinating Supply Chain Efforts
• Chemical Suppliers and Manufacturers Locator Tool
• Supply Chain Case Studies
• Water Treatment Chemical Supply Chain Profiles
• Understanding Water Treatment Chemical Supply Chains and the Risk of Disruptions
• Supply Chain Resilience Guide for Water and Wastewater Utilities
   

Onsite Wastewater System Basics & Maintenance

Decentralized or onsite wastewater systems are used for collection, treatment, and dispersal/reuse of wastewater from individual homes, clusters of homes, isolated communities, industries, or institutional facilities, at or near the point of waste generation. These systems are regulated at the state level, but not federal level.

We have 553 resources (and counting) on Decentralized Wastewater Systems in our Documents Database that provide valuable information on this topic. You can search for documents about financing onsite wastewater treatment systems, septic system basics before you buy a property, how to build a decentralized wastewater training program, and many other useful guides that will help you to maintain your septic system to ensure safe and clean water for your family or community.

To access the wealth of knowledge on Decentralized Wastewater within our database just select "CATEGORY" in the dropdown then choose "Decentralized WW Systems." Once you make that selection, a second dropdown will appear where you can choose "HOST," “TYPE,” or “STATE” to narrow the search even further. If you have a specific search term in mind, use the “Keyword Filter” search bar on the right side of the screen.

This is part of our A-Z for Operators series.

Public Relations & Customer Satisfaction for Water Utilities

Consumer Information is any information water operators are required to or may want to distribute to their consumers. This includes anything that is for the public that isn’t required, Consumer Confidence Reports aka annual water quality reports, voluntary communication, public awareness/education materials, fact sheets about system, treatment, etc.

We have 876 resources (and counting) on Consumer Information in our Documents Database that provide valuable information on this topic. You can search for documents on Consumer Confidence Report (CCR) best practices, webinar recordings about transparency and communications with water consumers, tips and tricks to help your utility communicate the value of drinking water services to rate payers, and many other useful guides that will help you to deliver safe and clean water to utility customers. 

To access the wealth of knowledge on Consumer Information within our database just select "CATEGORY" in the dropdown then choose "Consumer Information." Once you make that selection, a second dropdown will appear where you can choose "HOST," “TYPE,” or “STATE” to narrow the search even further. If you have a specific search term in mind, use the “Keyword Filter” search bar on the right side of the screen.

This is part of our A-Z for Operators series.

Decentralized Wastewater on Tribal Lands | Onsite Overview #4

Tribal communities face unique challenges when it comes to the management of decentralized wastewater and it’s important that resources are developed with these specific challenges in mind. Simply having a septic system is not unique to those living in Indian Country, but many organizations have recognized that the basic resources available may not cover the questions that arise for tribes when it comes to the operation of these essential utilities. We have compiled a list of resources to get you started if you are interested in finding tribal specific information about septic systems.

Our best resources on this topic:
Water and Wastewater Utility Operation and Management for Tribes - Decentralized Wastewater Systems | U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
This 29-minute presentation includes such topics as system inspection, system maintenance, and "things to avoid" for septic tanks. The module provides an overview of decentralized wastewater treatment and processes and includes a special look at innovative decentralized technologies and "best practices" for managing onsite systems.

Helping Solve Wastewater Challenges in Indian Country | University of Minnesota Water Resources Center
This 56-page guide provides tribal community members and tribal wastewater professionals with a four-phase process on how to assess and find appropriate solutions to community wastewater issues in Indian country. It includes guidance on generating a Community Wastewater Assessment Report, types of septic systems, how to choose the most appropriate wastewater treatment system for your community, and how to implement these solutions. The process outlined here weaves in significant considerations specific to Indian country that will likely improve the success of wastewater projects.

A Homeowner's Guide to Septic Systems for Tribal Communities | U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
This 9-page guide, from the U.S. EPA’s SepticSmart! program, focuses on the unique factors of tribal communities and homeowners on tribal lands in caring for their systems. It contains tips for properly maintaining septic systems as well as troubleshooting for common failure causes.

Onsite Wastewater Management: A Manual for Tribes | New Mexico State University
This 80-page manual helps tribes to take steps to ensure that sources of drinking water are clean and adequately protected against contamination, and that wastewater is appropriately managed. Chapter topics include: Historical Perspective of Native American Wastewater Management, Soils and Site Inspection, Septic Systems, Passive Advanced Treatment Systems, Mechanical Systems, Disinfection, and Reuse and Conservation of Wastewater.

Using a Responsible Management Entity (RME) to Manage Tribal Onsite (Septic) Wastewater Treatment Systems | U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
This 4-page fact sheet/brochure describes the use of a centralized approach for the management of septic systems using a Responsible Management Entity (RME) for oversight and maintenance.

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2. Once you make that selection, a second dropdown will appear where you can choose "TYPE" if you are looking for a specific kind of resource (videos, factsheets, etc.)
3. In the Keyword Filter, type “tribal” to make sure the resources are more targeted towards this topic.
4. The last step is to click the "Retrieve Documents" button to see your results.

Certification & Exam Prep for Water and Wastewater Operators

Operator certification helps protect human health and the environment by establishing minimum professional standards for the operation and maintenance of public water and wastewater systems. While the specific requirements vary from state to state, the goal of all operator certification programs is to ensure that skilled professionals are operating and maintaining drinking water and wastewater plants.

We have 872 resources (and counting) on Certification & Exam Prep in our Documents Database that provide valuable information on this topic. You can search for documents that go over math for water operators and for wastewater operators, training programs for water and wastewater operators, and many other useful guides that will help you prepare for your certification exams. 

To access the wealth of knowledge on Certification & Exam Prep within our database just select "CATEGORY" in the dropdown then choose "Certification/Exam Prep." Once you make that selection, a second dropdown will appear where you can choose "HOST," “TYPE,” or “STATE” to narrow the search even further. If you have a specific search term in mind, use the “Keyword Filter” search bar on the right side of the screen.

This is part of our A-Z for Operators series.

How Septic Systems Work | Onsite Overview #3

Whether you are a septic system homeowner or an onsite wastewater professional, it is important to know all you can about the ins and outs of septic systems. Whether it be the basics of how they work, what types are available, or how to clean a septic tank, there’s no such thing as being overeducated when it comes to such an integral aspect of so many homes in the U.S. We have compiled a list of resources to get you started if you are interested in learning how to properly care for and maintain a septic system.

Our best resources on this topic:
About Septic Systems | Oregon Department of Environmental Quality
This webpage provides a brief introduction to septic systems, how septic systems operate, an inspection checklist for those who are planning to buy a property with a septic system, how to go about getting a new septic system installed, and a septic system maintenance fact sheet.

All About Septics | University of Minnesota Onsite Sewage Treatment Program
This webpage provides detailed information on septic system types (type i and iii systems), advanced treatment systems (type iv systems), special situations, and other onsite treatment areas of interest.

Septic System Basics Video: Septics 101 Course | Washington State Department of Health
This 19-minute video intended for homeowners explains the basics of how on-site sewage systems function and the steps you should take to keep your system working well. The video is divided into 5 chapters that can be viewed separately. Chapters include: Introduction and Sewage Overview, System Basics and Soil, Types of Septic Systems, and System Care & Maintenance.

Cleaning an Onsite Sewage System | Indiana Onsite Wastewater Professionals Association
This 2-page fact sheet provides onsite owners some basics about the system. These include: How an Onsite Sewage System Works, Inspection of the System, Cleaning the Outlet Filter, and Cleaning the Septic Tank. Additional references are also included in this fact sheet.

Septic Tank Pumping | Idaho Department of Environmental Quality
This 11-page manual was developed to help pumpers understand these important aspects of septage handling and disposal. Topics covered are: Septic System Components, Checking the Level of Scum and Sludge in a Septic Tank, Permit Requirements, Septic Tank Pumping, Equipment for Pumping and Transporting Septage, Septage Storage, and Septage Disposal.

How to find more resources on this topic on our website?
If you are interested in looking through our database for other resources on this topic follow the instructions below:

1. Select "CATEGORY" in the dropdown then choose "Decentralized WW Systems." 
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3. Optional: In the Keyword Filter, you can type a specific word or phrase to target the search even further.
4. The last step is to click the "Retrieve Documents" button to see your results. 

Biosolids & Activated Sludge Treatment

Biosolids are the nutrient-rich organic materials resulting from the treatment of sewage sludge. Often times, they are the solids removed from the bottom of a lagoon, that are applied to farm fields as fertilizer.

We have 379 resources (and counting) on Biosolids in our Documents Database that provide valuable information on this topic. You can search for documents that cover the types of lagoon sludge and how to calculate sludge volume and the volatile portion, what are nutrients and how they are removed, how to deal with accumulated sludge in a wastewater lagoon, and many other useful guides that will help you to deliver safe and clean water to utility customers. 

To access the wealth of knowledge on Biosolids within our database just select "CATEGORY" in the dropdown then choose "Biosolids." Once you make that selection, a second dropdown will appear where you can choose "HOST," “TYPE,” or “STATE” to narrow the search even further. If you have a specific search term in mind, use the “Keyword Filter” search bar on the right side of the screen.

This is part of our A-Z for Operators series.

Health and Safety for Onsite Workers | Onsite Overview #2

Onsite professionals are exposed to many dangers on the job, and it is important to be aware of all the appropriate health and safety precautions that will keep workers (as well as the general public) safe. Outside of the day-to-day risks that decentralized wastewater workers must face, there is also the concern of public and environmental health when septic systems are not maintained and repaired correctly. We have compiled a list of resources to get you started if you are interested in learning more about decentralized wastewater systems and how they can affect health and safety.

Our best resources on this topic:
“More Than Just Dirty” Pathogen Exposures to Workers in the On-Site Industry | Washington Onsite Sewage Association
This 107-slide presentation provides research results on a study conducted to examine pathogen exposures to workers in the on-site industry, discuss the various types of pathogen exposures and health impacts, what kind of personal protective equipment (PPE) is available to on-site workers, and basic hygiene practices to reduce risks from handling human waste.

Septic Tank Lid Safety | Washington State Department of Health
This 1-page fact sheet has a list of 7 precautions to make sure no one accidently falls into your septic tank. This includes knowing where your septic system lids or covers are located, use bolts, screws, or other locks to secure the lids and prevent easy access, teach children that the septic tank lids are not to be played on or opened.

What is a Cesspool? | Wastewater Alternatives & Innovations
This 3-minute video describes what cesspools are, and why they need to be converted. Basically, a cesspool is a hole in the ground receiving untreated wastewater. Cesspools pollute the environment and endanger public health. The focus is on Hawaii since they have the greatest number of cesspools per capita for a total of 83,000 in the state that are planned to be converted by 2050.

Decentralized Wastewater Treatment Can Protect the Environment, Public Health, and Water Quality | U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
This 2-page fact sheet describes how a decentralized wastewater treatment system can provide reliable wastewater treatment, reduce conventional pollutants, nutrients, and emerging contaminants, and mitigate contamination and health risks associated with wastewater. A case study on where this worked is also provided.

The Need to Mandate Openings at Surface on Septic Tanks | National Onsite Wastewater Recycling Association
This 20-page presentation points out the common problem with access to septic tanks. Septic tanks are often installed without clear indications as to their locations and/or depths, creating several issues that should be addressed in order to properly maintain our waste management systems. Potential risks include the contamination of groundwater as potential injury to workers, homeowners, and the general public. The proposed solution is to install risers with covers to the surface as a reasonable way to assure proper maintenance.

How to find more resources on this topic on our website?
If you are interested in looking through our database for the other resources on this topic follow the instructions below:

1. Select "CATEGORY" in the dropdown then choose "Decentralized WW Systems." 
2. Once you make that selection, a second dropdown will appear where you can choose "TYPE" if you are looking for a specific kind of resource (videos, factsheets, etc.)
3. Optional: In the Keyword Filter, you can type a specific word or phrase to target the search even further.
4. The last step is to click the "Retrieve Documents" button to see your results.  

RCAP's A Drop of Knowledge: Recent Article Roundup #2

A Drop of Knowledge is a monthly digital article from Rural Community Assistance Partnership (RCAP.) The articles focus on topics like wastewater, drinking water, policy, and infrastructure in rural America. It contains how-to’s, tips, and guidance from more than 300 technical assistance providers (TAPs) across the country. Some recent featured articles are linked below:

• Effective Communication with the Community | RCAP
• System Vulnerability Assessments and Emergency Response Plans | RCAP
• Staff in Nebraska is Helping to Build a Sustainable, Resilient Utility Workforce | RCAP
• Administrative Professionals and Their Continuous Contributions to Water and Wastewater Systems | RCAP
• Assessing Your Collection System with a Pipeline Camera System  | RCAP
• Removing Arsenic from A Tribal School's Water System | RCAP

Looking for something else? Find more articles and subscribe to A Drop of Knowledge.